Verk þetta má eigi afrita með neinum hætti. Svo sem ljósmyndun, prentun, hljóðritun eða á annan sambærilegan hátt, að hluta eða í heild, án skriflegs leyfis höfundar.

Þolmynd (passive voice)

Germynd:			Þolmynd:
He	buys	it.	It	is bought	by him.
	is buying			is being bought
	bought			was bought
	was buying			was being bought
	has bought			has been bought
	had bought			had been bought
	will buy			will be bought
	will have bought			will have been bought
	would buy			would be bought
	would have bought			would have been bought

Þegar germynd er breytt í þolmynd, verður andlagið (þolandinn) að nefnifalli og gerandinn kemur á eftir forsetningunni by: The police caught the thief. The thief was caught by the police. He has bought it. It has been bought by him.

Þolmyndarsögnin er mynduð með því að setja sögnina to be í sömu tíð og germyundarsögnin er í og bæta síðan við lýsingarhætti þátíðar af aðalsögn. Athugið, að to be lagar sig eftir tölu nefnifallsorðsins í þomyndinni: The boy broke the window. The window was broken by the boy. The boy broke the window. The windows were broken by the boy.

Ef áhrifssögn hefur tvöfalt andlag (þolfalls- og þágufallsandlag), getur hvort um sig verið frumlag í þolmyndarsetningunni: Someone gave her a present (germynd). - She was given a present. A present was given to her. Fyrri setningin er þó algengari þ.e.a.s. óbeina andlagið er oftast haft sem frumlag þolmyndarinnar.

Þolmynd er notuð í ensku, þegar meiri áhersla er lögð á athöfnina (sögnina) en gerandann og þegar gerandinn er ókunnur: My watch has been stolen. Þess vegna er gerandanum (forsetningarliðnum) oft sleppt í þolmyndinni, ef hann skiptir ekki máli: People speak English all over the world (germynd). English is spoken all over the world (þolmynd).

Breyttu germynd í þolmynd. Slepptu gerandanum, ef þér finnst hann óþarfur:

1. A young boy delivers the newspapers. 2. The tramp has taken the man's clothes. 3. Three doctors examined him. 4. Did Tom change the wheel? 5. Has somebody switched the radio on? 6. They broke into the house. 7. You can hire a caravan easily. 8. Peter was building the house. 9. Mary didn't draw the picture, did she? 10. Somebody has broken the window. 11. Tom gave Susan a diamond ring. 12. The pilot reported Frank's position. 13. Soemone told me you had gone to France. 14. They have sent for the doctor. 15. Everybody laughed at him. 16. Someone lent her two valuable books. 17. They have allowed him five minutes to get ready. 18. They were asking her her name at the reception desk. 19. A friend told me the latest news this morning. 20. They must tell them that they are not to come here again.

Breyttu þolmynd í germynd:

1. Children cannot be expected to understand these problems. 2. Were these vegetables grown in your own garden? 3. All his calculations have been proved wrong. 4. They were shown the house by the owner himself. 5. She was recommended a new doctor by her friend, wasn't she? 6. The city is being defended by soldiers. 7. I have never been spoken to like that. 8. We will be laughed at if we don't take care. 9. The visitors should have been shown into the best room by now. 10. When the safe was opened, the police found out that the money had been stolen by a burglar.

Viðtengingarháttur (subjunctive)

Viðtengingarháttur er tiltölulega sjaldgæfur miðað við íslensku, en hann er fyrst og fremst notaður með sögninni to be.

Viðtengingarháttur af sögninni to be er be í nútíð ogwere í þátíð í öllum persónum, eintölu og fleirtölu.

• Nútíð viðtengingarháttar af to be er helst notuð í föstum orðasamböndum: Be that as it may. If need be. Far be it from me to ... etc.
• Þátíð viðtengingarháttar af to be er notuð:
  • á eftir (as) if: If I were you, I'd go home. I remember it as if it were yesterday.
  • í aukasetningum á eftir wish: I wish it were over. I wish I were rich.

Skilyrðissetningar (conditional clauses)

Aðalsetningar (main clauses) koma á eftir eða á undan skilyrðissetningum. Röðin skiptir ekki máli, heldur eru tíðir sagnanna aðalatriðið: He will do it (aðalsetning) if you ask him (skilyrðissetning). If you ask him (skilyrðissetning), he will do it (aðalsetning).

Margar tegundir eru til af skilyrðissetningum, en hér verður aðeins fjallað um þrjá meginflokka þeirra.

Athygli skal vakin á því að svipaðar reglur gilda um tíðir í aukasetningum sem byrja á orðum eins og t.d. unless, in case, when, whenever.

Skilyrðissetning			Aðalsetning
1. Skilyrðið verður mjög líklega uppfyllt.
...	(nútíð)	...	...	(framtíð)	...
If you	ring	the bell,	the boy	will come.	...
If he	is	at home,	she	will meet	him.
2. Skilyrðið er ímyndað en hugsanlegt er að uppfylla það.
...	(þátíð)	...	...	(skildagatíð)	...
If you	rang	the bell,	the boy	would come.	...
If he	were	at home,	she	would meet	him.
3. Skilyrðið er ímyndað og ómögulegt er að uppfylla það, því að tækifærið er liðið.
...	(þáliðin tíð)	...	...	(þáskildagatíð)	...
If you	had rung	the bell,	the boy	would have come.	...
If he	had been	at home,	she	would have met	him.

Athugið að were í If he were at home... er þátíð viðtengingarháttar og er frekar formlegt. Margir eru því farnir að segja If he was at home...

Munið að nota hvorki will né would á eftir if (í skilyrðissetningu).

Sagnarnafnorð (verbal noun, gerund)

Spurnarnafnorð er alveg eins og lýsingarháttur nútíðar (present participle) að mynd, en eins og nafnið segir til, þá er sagnarnaforð notað sem nokkurs konar nafnorð. Berið saman: He likes reading in bed. He likes music.

Sagnarnafnorð er notað:

• á efir forsetningum: He is fond of sleeping late.
• Athugið, að eftirfarandi setningu má þýða á tvennan hátt: Ég er hræddur um að hann hafi gert vitleysu.
  • I am afraid that he has made a mistake. - Takið eftir því, að á undan aukasetningu sem hefst á that, verður að sleppa forsetningu. Þetta er algengt talmál.
  • I am afraid of his having made a mistake. - Takið eftir því, að persónufornafnið íslenska í aukasetningunni kemur fram sem eignarfornafn í ensku. Þetta er bókmál eða frekar hátíðlegt tal.
• á eftir ýmsum áhrifssögnum t.d. avoid, deny, enjoy, excuse, fancy, finish, imagine, mention, mind, practise, prevent , put off, resist , risk og suggest: He enjoys watching the birds. Fancy wearing clothes like those! He didn't deny having gone out.
• með nokkrum áhrifslausum sögnum sem tákna hreyfingu eða kyrrstöðu t.d. come, go, be, lie, remain, sit og stand: We sat chatting over our coffee.
• með sögnum eins og see, hear, observe, watch, notice, feel og smell, ef um yfirstandandi verknað er ræða. Annars er nafnháttur notaður: I saw him crossing the street (: on the way across). I saw him cross the street (: from one side to the other).
• með sögnum eins og hate, like, dislike, prefer og love, ef það er verið að lýsa hinu venjulega. Annars er nafnháttur notaður til að lýsa sérstöku tækifæri: He (always) likes fishing. I'd love to go to the cinema (now).
• með sögnum sem líka geta tekið nafnhátt, en þá með merkingarmun t.d. forget , remember, go on, mean, regret, stop og try:
  • forget / remember + doing (= (not) recall an action): I won't forget seeing Christie win the gold medal as long as I live. - I remember paying you for the tickets.
    forget / remember + to do (= (not) do an action you must do): Anne remembered to lock all the doors when she went on holiday but she forgot to close the bathroom window.

    go on + doing (= continue an action): I'll go on loving you until I die.
    go on + to do (= finish one activity and start another): After seven years of study, Andy went on to become a doctor.

    mean + doing (= involve): Dieting usually means giving up sweet thing.
    mean + to do (= be one's intention): I meant to send you a letter but I forgot to take my address book.

    regret + doing (= be sorry about an action in the past): Many people regret marrying young.
    regret + to do (= be sorry about what you are going to say): Dr. Taylor regrets to say that he is unable to see patients without an appointment.

    stop + doing (= finish an activity): Their mother told them to stop talking.
    stop + to do (= interrupt one activity in order to do another): We stopped to get some petrol and have some lunch.

    try + doing (= do as an experiment): She has a headache. She tried taking an aspirin but it didn't work.
    try + to do (= attempt a difficult action): I was tired. I tried to keep my eyes open but I couldn't.

• á eftir ýmsum lýsingarorðum t.d. busy, like ogworth: He is busy doing his homework.
• á eftir vissum orðatiltækjum: It's no use pretending that you didn't see them.

Bibliography
Haines, Simon, and Barbara Stewart. New First Certificate Masterclass. Oxford UP, 1996.
Jones, Leo. Progress to First Certificate. Cambridge UP, 1992.

Lýsingarháttur nútíðar (present participle)

Lýsingarhátt nútíðar má nota:

• þegar tvær aðalsetningar með sama frumlag standa hlið við hlið: Turning to the boy, the man asked him why he was crying.
• í stað tíðar- og orsakasetningar með sama frumlagi og aðalsetningin: Driving through London one day, I had a little accident. Being penniless, I had to ask him for a loan.
• í stað tilvísunarsetningar: The staircase leading to his room was bad.

Óbein ræða (reported /indirect speech)

Þegar vitnað er í orð (eða hugsanir) einhvers manns, er unnt að gera það á tvo vegu. Í fyrsta lagi má reyna að hafa orðrétt eftir honum (bein ræða) og hafa þá orðin innan gæsalappa:

He said, "I am going home." - He said, "I love you." -

Í öðru lagi má hafa ummæli eftir einhverjum án þess að farið sé orðrétt með þau (óbein ræða). Þá geta t.d. sagnir, orðaröð og fornöfn verið önnur en raunverulega voru notuð:

He said he was going home. - He said he loved me.

Nokkrar reglur um óbeina ræðu:

• Þegar sögnin í aðalsetningunni er í þátíð, verður sögnin í aukasetningunni líka að vera í þátíð:
  John said to me, "I like New York." - (Bein ræða)
  John told me that he liked New York. - (Óbein ræða)
• Þegar setning er í þátíð í beinni ræðu, breytist tíðin oftast í þáliðna tíð í óbeinni ræðu:
  John said, "I saw that film." - (Bein ræða)
  John said that he had seen that film. - (Óbein ræða)
• Þegar beinum spurningum er breytt i óbeinar, þá fellur spurnarformið (ásamt spurningarmerki) niður, því að setningin er raunverulega ekki lengur spurning heldur fullyrðing:
  John asked, "Where does Mary live?" - (Bein ræða)
  John asked where Mary lived. - (Óbein ræða)
• Ef bein spurning byrjar ekki á einhverju spurnarorði eins og t.d. when, where, who, why eða how, verður hún að byrja á samtengingunni whether (eða if ) í óbeinni ræðu:
  He asked me, "Do you like Egilstaðir?" - (Bein ræða)
  He asked me whether I liked Egilstaðir. - (Óbein ræða)
• Skipunum (boðhætti), ráðleggingum og tillögum í beinni ræðu er oftast breytt í nafnhátt í óbeinni ræðu:
  Mr. Smith said to me, "Come back later." - (Bein ræða)
  Mr. Smith told me to come back later. - (Óbein ræða)
  John said to me, "Don't wait for me." - (Bein ræða)
  John told me not to wait for him. - (Óbein ræða)
• Ef t.d. sögnin suggest er notuð, verður að breyta beinni ræðu í óbeina með aukasetningu sem byrjar á that:
  Mr. Smith suggested that I should come back later.
  John suggested that I shouldn't wait for him.
• Takið eftir að þátíðarmyndir ófullkomnu sagnanna must og ought to eru aðeins notaðar í óbeinni ræðu:
  He said, "It must be pretty late." - (Bein ræða)
  He said that it must be pretty late. - (Óbein ræða)
• Takið að lokum eftir notkun á said og told í dæmunum hér á undan. Sögnina say má ekki nota í óbeinni ræðu, þegar fram kemur til hvað persónu orðin eru stíluð.

Breyttu þessum setningum í óbeina ræðu:

1. Mary said to me, "I will be back later." 2. They said, "We have known him for a long time." 3. I asked him, "Be more careful." 4. He warned the child, "Don't cross the street." 5. I asked him, "When did you read that book." 6. She said to him, "Do you like my new hat?" 7. Peter said, "Why don't we phone him now?" 8. "Did Michael ring?" Joan asked. 9. "Sarah ought to go to the doctor's," said Mr. Brown. 10. He said, "I have to go. - I've got an appointment in half an hour."

Óreglulegar sagnir (irregular verbs)

R þýðir að sögnin beygist líka reglulega.

Nafnháttur	Þátíð	Lýsingarháttur þátíðar
1. bear [b]	bore	born(e): fæða, ala
2. beat [bi:t]	beat [bi:t]	beaten: slá, sigra
3. become	became	become: verða
4. begin	began	begun: byrja
5. bend	bent	bent: beygja (sig)
6. bet, R	bet	bet: veðja
7. bid	bid	bid: bjóða í
8. bind [baind]	bound [baund]	bound: binda, festa
9. bite [bait]	bit [bit]	bitten: bíta
10. bleed [bli:d]	bled [bled]	bled: blæða
11. blow	blew [blu:]	blown: blása, feykja
12. break [breik]	broke [brouk]	broken: brjóta, brotna
13. breed [bri:d]	bred [bred]	bred: rækta, kynbæta
14. bring	brought [br:t]	brought: koma með (hingað)
15. broadcast, R	broadcast	broadcast: útvarpa
16. build	built	built: byggja, reisa
17. burn, R	burnt	burnt: brenna
18. burst	burst	burst: springa
19. buy [bai]	bought [b:t]	bought: kaupa
20. catch [kæt]	caught [k:t]	caught: ná í, grípa
21. choose [tu:z]	chose [touz]	chosen: velja
22. come	came	come: koma (hingað)
23. cost	cost	cost: kosta
24. creep [kri:p]	crept [krept]	crept: skríða, læðast
25. cut	cut	cut: skera
26. deal [di:l]	dealt [delt]	dealt: fást við, versla
27. dig	dug	dug: grafa
28. do	did	done: gera
29. draw [dr:]	drew [dru:]	drawn: teikna, draga
30. dream, R [dri:m]	dreamt [dremt]	dreamt: dreyma
31. drink	drank	drunk: drekka
32. drive [draiv]	drove [drouv]	driven: aka, reka
33. dwell	dwelt	dwelt: dveljast, búa
34. eat [i:t]	ate [et, eit]	eaten [i:tn]: borða
35. fall	fell	fallen: falla, detta
36. feed	fed	fed: mata, fæða
37. feel	felt	felt: líða, finnast
38. fight [fait]	fought [f:t]	fought: berjast, slást
39. find	found	found: finna(st)
40. flee	fled	fled: flýja
41. fly [flai]	flew [flu:]	flown: fljúga
42. forbid	forbade	forbidden: banna
43. forget	forgot	forgotten: gleyma
44. forgive	forgave	forgiven: fyrirgefa
45. freeze [fri:z]	froze [frouz]	frozen: frjósa, frysta
46. get	got	got(ten): fá, verða
47. give	gave	given: gefa
48. go	went	gone [gn]: fara
49. grind [graind]	ground [graund]	ground: mala, mylja

50. grow	grew [gru:]	grown: vaxa, rækta
51. hang, R	hung	hung: hanga, hengja
52. have	had	had: hafa, eiga
53. hear [hi]	heard [h:]	heard: heyra
54. hide	hid	hidden: fela, geyma
55. hit	hit	hit: slá, rekast á
56. hold	held	held: halda
57. hurt	hurt	hurt: meiða
58. keep	kept	kept: geyma, halda
59. kneel, R [ni:l]	knelt [nelt]	knelt: krjúpa
60. knit, R [nit]	knit	knit: tengja, binda
61. know	knew [nju:]	known: vita
62. lay [lei]	laid [leid]	laid [leid]: leggja
63. lead [li:d]	led	led: leiða
64. lean, R [li:n]	leant [lent]	leant: halla (sér)
65. leap, R [li:p]	leapt [lept]	leapt: hlaupa, stökkva
66. learn, R	learnt	learnt: læra
67. leave	left	left: yfirgefa, fara
68. lend	lent	lent: lána
69. let	let	let: láta, leigja
70. lie, R [lai]	lay [lei]	lain [lein]: liggja
71. light	lit	lit: kveikja
72. lose [lu:z]	lost	lost: týna
73. make	made	made: búa til, gera
74. mean [mi:n]	meant [ment]	meant: meina, halda
75. meet	met	met: hitta
76. pay	paid	paid: borga
77. put [put]	put	put: láta, setja
78. quit, R	quit	quit: yfirgefa, fara
79. read [ri:d]	read [red]	read: lesa
80. rid	rid	rid: losa, losna
81. ride	rode	ridden: ríða
82. ring	rang	rung: hringja
83. rise	rose	risen: rísa, koma upp
84. run	ran	run: hlaupa
85. say	said	said: segja e-ð
86. see	saw	seen: sjá
87. seek [si:k]	sought [s:t]	sought: leita
88. sell	sold	sold: selja
89. send	sent	sent: senda
90. set	set	set: setja
91. shake [eik]	shook [uk]	shaken: hrista
92. shine [ain]	shone [n]	shone: skína
93. shoot	shot	shot: skjóta
94. show	showed	shown: sýna
95. shut	shut	shut: loka
96. sing	sang	sung: syngja
97. sink	sank	sunk: sökkva
98. sit	sat	sat: sitja
99. sleep	slept	slept: sofa

100. slide [slaid]	slid [slid]	slid: renna
101. slit	slit	slit: rífa, rista
102. smell, R	smelt	smelt: lykta, finna lykt
103. speak	spoke	spoken: tala
104. speed, R	sped	sped: geysast
105. spell, R	spelt	spelt: stafa
106. spend	spent	spent: eyða
107. spill, R	spilt	spilt: hella niður
108. split	split	split: kljúfa, klofna
109. spoil, R	spoilt	spoilt: skemma, spilla
110. spread [spred]	spread [spred]	spread: dreifa
111. spring	sprang	sprung: stökkva
112. stand	stood [stud]	stood: standa
113. steal	stole	stolen: stela
114. stick	stuck	stuck: festa(st)
115. stride [straid]	stode [stroud]	stridden: skálma, stika
116. strike	struck	struck: slá
117. strive [straiv]	strove [stouv]	striven: keppast við
118. swear [swe]	swore [sw:]	sworn [sw:n]: sverja, bölva
119. sweep	swept	swept: sópa
120. swim	swam	swum: synda
121. swing	swung	swung: sveifla(st)
122. take	took	taken: taka
123. teach [ti:t]	taught [t:t]	taught: kenna
124. tear [t]	tore [t:]	torn [t:n]: rífa
125. tell	told	told: segja e-m e-ð
126. think	thought [:t]	thought: hugsa
127. throw	threw [ru:]	thrown: kasta
128. thrust	thrust	thrust: þrýsta, ýta
129. tread [tred]	trod [trd]	todden: stíga á
130. understand	understood	understood: skilja
131. upset	upset	upset: æsa
132. wake	woke	woken: vekja, vakna
133. wear [w]	wore [w:]	worn: vera í, klæðast
134. weave [wi:v]	wove [wouv]	woven: vefa
135. weep	wept	wept: gráta, skæla
136. win	won	won: vinna, sigra
137. wind [waind]	wound [wound]	wound: bugðast
138. write	wrote	written: skrifa

Nokkrar athugasemdir við óreglulegar sagnir:

• Þegar bear er áhrifssögn eða í þolmynd á undan gerandanum (forsetningarliðnum), þá er lýsingarháttur þátíðar borne: She has borne him five children. Two sons have been borne by her. Í mekingunni að bera, halda á, er lýsingarháttur þátíðar líka borne, en hann er sjaldgæfur í nútíma ensku: The dead king was borne from the room.
• bet er óregluleg, ef veðupphæðar er getið, annars er hún regluleg: He bet me a pound that his horse would win. They betted a good deal in those days.
• Bandaríkjamenn bera ate fram [eit], en Bretar bera ate oftast fram [et].
• Gotten er algengast í Ameríku.
• hang er regluleg í merkingunni að hengja, að taka af lífi með hengingu: He was hanged for murder.
• knit er regluleg sögn í merkingunni að prjóna:She has knitted her husband a pair of socks.
• Lýsingarháttur nútíðar af lay er laying.
• Lýsingarháttur nútíðar af lie er lying. lie er regluleg í merkingunni að ljúga: He lied himself out of trouble.
• quit er óregluleg í Ameríku.
  

©1998 Sævar Hilbertsson
Athugasemdir til shil@simnet.is
Síðast uppfærð 13.02.2003